On August 2, 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein ordered the invasion of Kuwait, sparking immediate international outrage. Iraq’s aggressive incursion into its small neighbor was met with worldwide condemnation, as nations recognized the threat it posed to the delicate balance of power in the oil-rich Gulf region. The United Nations swiftly called for Iraqi forces to withdraw, and economic sanctions were imposed. In the months that followed, the United States took the lead in organizing an unprecedented coalition of over 30 countries, united by a shared goal: to push Iraq out of Kuwait and restore regional stability.
Days after the invasion, Operation Desert Shield saw a coalition of nations, including the U.S., U.K., and 33 others amass military forces in Saudi Arabia as a deterrent against further Iraqi aggression. Operation Desert Storm followed U.N. Resolution 678, and coalition forces launched a full-scale offensive to liberate Kuwait. Marked by technological advances and highly coordinated tactics, the campaign devastated Iraqi troops, with coalition forces achieving their objectives in a matter of weeks.
The Gulf War left a profound legacy, reshaping U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East, reinforcing America’s role as a dominant force in the region, and setting a precedent for future military engagements. The swift and successful coalition response demonstrated the power of multinational alliances with a well-defined goal and underscored the strategic importance of Middle Eastern stability to global interests. Soon after, the collapse of the Soviet Union would leave the United States as the world's unrivaled superpower, marking the dawn of a new era of American hegemony.
Background
Credit: Wikipedia - Adnan Khairallah, Iraqi Defence Minister, meeting with Iraqi soldiers during the Iran-Iraq WarIran-Iraq War (1980 - 1988)
Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq's newly appointed president, Saddam Hussein, viewed the collapse of Iran’s monarchy and the rise of a neighboring Islamic Republic as a direct threat to his secular Ba'athist regime. He feared that Iran’s revolutionary zeal would inspire Shiite uprisings within Iraq and potentially encourage efforts to overthrow him. Believing Iran to be vulnerable amid post-revolution instability, Saddam launched an invasion, aiming for a swift and decisive victory.
The war, however, would drag on for eight brutal years. Neither side could secure victory, leading to a bloody stalemate marked by extensive use of trench warfare, chemical weapons, and missile attacks on civilian areas. Internationally, the conflict drew support from both Western and Gulf nations, who backed Iraq financially and militarily, fearing Iran’s rising influence in the region. However, when the war finally ended in 1988, neither Iran nor Iraq emerged as a clear victor. The conflict had devastated both countries' economies, infrastructures, and populations, leaving scars that would impact the region for years.
Iraq, in particular, felt the economic impact of the war. Its main revenue source, oil, had been compromised early on by Iranian attacks. In addition, throughout the conflict, Iraq was forced to borrow billions of dollars from its neighboring Gulf allies, particularly Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, to sustain military operations and stabilize the economy. By the end of the war, Iraq faced enormous debt, estimated at around $80 billion, and reconstruction was expected to take over 20 years. With oil prices low in the late 1980s, Iraq’s primary economic lifeline could not generate the revenue needed to recover from the financial burden of the war.
Credit: Deviant Art - Saddam Hussein Addressing Iraqi soldiers during the Iran-Iraq WarEscalating Tensions with Kuwait
After the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein requested that Gulf nations forgive Iraq’s war debt, arguing that Iraq had already “paid with the blood of their soldiers.” He asserted that Iraq had acted as a protective barrier, shielding the rest of the region from the encroaching threat of the Islamic regime in Iran. By framing Iraq’s war efforts as a service to regional stability, Saddam contended that Iraq should not be obligated to repay the billions borrowed from its Gulf allies, particularly Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
In July 1990, Saddam accused Kuwait of engaging in “economic warfare” against Iraq, denouncing both Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates for exceeding their OPEC oil production quotas and driving down global oil prices. He warned of possible military action if Kuwait and other Gulf states maintained high production levels, though few took the threat seriously. Saddam also alleged that Kuwait was slant drilling into the Rumaila oil field, a major reserve along the Iraq-Kuwait border, claiming Kuwait was unlawfully siphoning Iraqi resources without compensation. These tensions intensified as Iraq demanded $10 billion from Kuwait in reparations for what Saddam viewed as deliberate economic harm. Efforts to resolve the dispute diplomatically, mediated by the Arab League, ultimately failed, as Kuwait refused significant concessions on oil policy or debt relief.
Iraq began to mass troops on its border with Kuwait.
The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait
Credit: Wikipedia - Iraqi Tanks Invade Kuwait City2:00AM: In the dead of night on August 2, 1990, Iraq began its invasion of Kuwait. Four Iraqi Republican Guard divisions poured across the border, in a two-pronged attack. The primary attack force drove south, straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entered Kuwait farther west before turning east to cut off Kuwait City. This attack quickly overwhelmed the tiny, unprepared, oil-rich country. As sunrise began in Washington D.C., Kuwait City, the capital of Kuwait, had already been captured and the Iraqis had established a provincial government.
With just minutes notice, the Emir of Kuwait, Sheikh Jaber al-Ahmad al-Sabah, was able to flee the country to Saudi Arabia. However, several members of the Kuwaiti royal family were killed, including Sheikh Fahd al-Ahmad al-Sabah, a prominent brother of the emir.
Operation Desert Shield
Credit: War on the Rocks - Operation Desert Shield Airpower StagingBy annexing Kuwait, Iraq gained control of 20% of the world’s oil reserves and, for the first time, a substantial coastline on the Persian Gulf. However, the situation quickly shifted as Iraq faced significant international backlash. The United Nations Security Council unanimously condemned the invasion and demanded Iraq’s immediate withdrawal from Kuwait in Resolution 660. On the same day, the U.S. Treasury coordinated with banks worldwide to block Saddam from accessing Kuwait's wealth. On August 6, the U.N. Security Council imposed a global trade ban on Iraq through Resolution 661. As a result, Iraq’s already precarious economic position deteriorated sharply.
In August 1990, in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, the United States and its allies launched Operation Desert Shield. The operation focused on deploying coalition forces to Saudi Arabia to deter further Iraqi aggression and to prepare for potential military action. Over the next several months, the coalition rapidly amassed more than 500,000 troops, including 300,000 U.S. personnel, alongside significant military equipment such as tanks, aircraft, and artillery. This buildup created a formidable defensive shield around Saudi Arabia, effectively halting Iraq's advancement southward. The coalition also initiated a blockade of the Persian Gulf, preventing Iraq from accessing vital oil resources and restricting its trade. Meanwhile, Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein built up his occupying army in Kuwait to about 300,000 troops.
The U.S. administration, led by George H.W. Bush, initially appeared hesitant to use military force in response to the invasion. However, U.K. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher reminded the President that the appeasement of the 1930s had led to World War II and that allowing Saddam to control the Gulf and 65% of the world's oil supply would be disastrous. She famously urged President Bush, 'not to go wobbly.'
Once persuaded, U.S. officials demanded a complete Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, refusing to link it to other Middle Eastern issues. In contrast, Saddam demanded that Israel withdraw from Palestinian, Syrian, and Lebanese territories before any resolution to the situation in Kuwait could be considered.
On November 29, 1990, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 678, giving Iraq until January 15, 1991, to withdraw from Kuwait. The resolution also authorized states to use "all necessary means" to expel Iraq from Kuwait if the deadline passed without compliance.
Credit: Wikipedia - Map Showing the Gulf War Coalition CountriesBuilding the Coalition
Following Resolution 678, U.S. Secretary of State James Baker III went on an 11-day journey to nine countries, dubbed "The Tin Cup Trip". He was able to raise money and coalition soldiers from many Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Egypt, UAE, Oman, and Syria. Ultimately, the coalition grew to 42 countries, becoming the largest coalition since World War II. However, U.S. troops still represented 73% of the coalition's 956,600 troops.
Credit: PH2 SUSAN CARL - Gen. Colin Powell (left), Gen. Norman Schwarzkopf Jr., and Paul Wolfowitz (right) listen as Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney addresses reporters regarding the Gulf War.Swaying U.S. Public Opinion
Leading up to the January 15, 1991 deadline, propaganda was used to persuade Americans to support military intervention. Although the Iraqi military committed human rights abuses during the invasion, the alleged incidents that received the most publicity in the U.S. were seemingly fabrications of the public relations firms hired by the government of Kuwait. For example, a 15-year-old identifying herself as a nurse working in the Kuwait City hospital described Iraqi soldiers pulling babies out of incubators and letting them die on the floor. This story was not corroborated, yet led to six Congressmen saying the testimony was enough for them to support military action against Iraq. As the deadline approached, the Senate voted to support the military actions in a 52–47 vote.
Operation Desert Storm
Credit: Staff Sgt. Aaron Allmon II - The USAF F-117 Nighthawk, one of the key aircraft used in Operation Desert StormOn January 16, 1991, hell was unleashed. For 42 consecutive days and nights, the coalition forces subjected Iraq to one of the most intensive air bombardments in military history. The coalition flew over 100,000 sorties (attacks from defensive positions) and dropped 88,500 tons of bombs.
Credit: Wikipedia - SCUD Missile LauncherWhile coalition forces were making significant progress in their efforts to destroy Iraqi military installations, Saddam Hussein attempted to divert the focus of the war by escalating the conflict with Israel. Iraq began launching SCUD missiles into Israel, firing 88 missiles during the seven-week war. While the missile strikes were largely ineffective, due to the reduced accuracy and limited payload of the missiles at such extreme range, the attacks killed two Israeli civilians. The U.S. urged Israel not to retaliate and deployed a Patriot missile defense system to help protect against further attacks. As the SCUD assaults persisted, Israeli patience wore thin, and they considered taking unilateral military action against Iraq. Israel warned that if the U.S. could not stop the attacks, they would take matters into their own hands. Ultimately, Israel refrained from intervening in the conflict.
Credit: SSGT F. LEE CORKRAN - U.S. Army soldiers from the 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade during the Gulf WarBattle of Khafji
The first ground battle of the Gulf War was the Battle of Khafji. Iraqi forces, using tanks and infantry, attacked and occupied the Saudi city of Khafji - but their occupation was short-lived. Allied forces, including Saudi National Guard, Qatari forces, and U.S. Marines, quickly counterattacked and liberated the city. The battle demonstrated how effectively coalition air power could disrupt and hinder Iraqi ground forces, as 140 coalition aircraft were involved in devastating precision strikes on Iraqi armored units, destroying hundreds of vehicles.
Credit: Jonas Jordan, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers - Burning oilfield during Operation Desert Storm, KuwaitLiberation of Kuwait
On February 24, 1991, the ground campaign began, with coalition forces—primarily U.S., Saudi, and Qatari troops—moving quickly into Kuwait to expel the Iraqi occupiers. Just three days later, Kuwait was liberated. Iraqi forces, unable to withstand the coalition’s overwhelming military might, began retreating. In their retreat, Iraq carried out a scorched earth policy, setting fire to oil wells and laying mines, causing further environmental and economic damage to Kuwait. Iraqi forces deliberately released an estimated 11 million barrels of oil into the Persian Gulf, creating one of the largest oil spills in history, which caused extensive environmental damage to marine life and coastal ecosystems. While Iraqi resistance in Kuwait was minimal, fierce combat ensued at strategic locations, particularly around Kuwait International Airport, where remaining Iraqi forces attempted to hold out before eventually being defeated. U.S. Marines fought to secure the airport, ultimately ensuring the complete liberation of the country.
Credit: PHC HOLMES - Tank Incursion into IraqIncursions into Iraq
As coalition forces began the ground campaign to liberate Kuwait on February 24, 1991, they also launched incursions into Iraq to neutralize remaining Iraqi military units and prevent any regrouping. While Kuwait was still in the process of being liberated, U.S. forces, particularly the VII Corps, advanced into Iraq, engaging in intense battles with Iraqi defensive positions. Key confrontations such as the Battle of 73 Easting and Battle of Norfolk saw coalition forces decisively defeat Iraqi units. These incursions aimed to eliminate the threat posed by Iraq’s military, ensuring that retreating Iraqi forces would not be able to regroup or pose future threats.
Credit: TECH. SGT. JOE COLEMAN - The Highway of DeathThe Highway of Death
On the night of February 26-27, Iraqis tried to flee Kuwait with their military assets using Highway 80, which runs from Kuwait City to the border town of Safwan in Iraq and then on to the Iraqi city of Basra. American, Canadian, British, and French aircraft and ground forces attacked retreating Iraqi military personnel, resulting in the destruction of hundreds of vehicles and the deaths of many of their occupants. Between 1,400 and 2,000 vehicles were destroyed or abandoned by retreating Iraqi forces on the main Highway 80 north of Al Jahra. The scenes of devastation on the road are some of the most recognizable images of the war, and it has been suggested that they were a factor in President George H. W. Bush's decision to declare a cessation of hostilities the next day.
Credit: RIA Novosti - United Nations MeetingResolution 687
Following the Highway of Death, on February 28, U.S. President George Bush declared a cease-fire, and on April 3 the U.N. Security Council passed Resolution 687, officially bringing an end to Operation Desert Storm. The coalition had achieved its primary objectives—liberating Kuwait and inflicting a devastating defeat on Iraqi forces. Despite the military success, Saddam Hussein's regime was not toppled, as the coalition had refrained from pursuing regime change or advancing on Baghdad. The ceasefire allowed Saddam to remain in power, though his authority was severely weakened. In the aftermath, Iraq was left crippled economically and militarily, with much of its infrastructure destroyed. The UN sanctions imposed on Iraq remained in place, and Iraq’s military capabilities were dramatically reduced. However, Saddam Hussein’s regime survived, and he continued to hold power in Iraq for another decade, even as he faced internal uprisings and international isolation. The failure to remove him from power would set the stage for future conflicts in the region, including the 2003 Iraq War.
Legacy of The Gulf War
Credit: Bush Library - President Bush Meeting U.S. Soldiers in Saudi ArabiaThe legacy of the Gulf War is profound, reshaping both the Middle East and the global geopolitical landscape. The war reaffirmed U.S. military dominance in the region and demonstrated the power of multinational coalitions in addressing international crises. The swift and decisive victory over Iraq not only liberated Kuwait but also showcased the strategic importance of air power, technology, and coordinated military efforts. This success reinforced America's role as the undisputed superpower in the post-Cold War era, a position that would define U.S. foreign policy for decades. The war also highlighted the growing reliance on international institutions such as the United Nations, as Resolution 687 laid the framework for post-war sanctions and military restrictions on Iraq, though it also exposed the limitations of these measures in preventing long-term instability in the region.
Geopolitically, the Gulf War had far-reaching consequences. The defeat of Iraq weakened Saddam Hussein's regime but did not lead to its collapse, leaving him in power and contributing to internal uprisings and a decade of authoritarian rule. The war also marked a significant shift in Middle Eastern power dynamics, solidifying the U.S.-Saudi alliance and reinforcing the importance of controlling the Persian Gulf and its vital oil reserves. The aftermath of the war also set the stage for the 2003 Iraq War when the failure to remove Saddam from power and the continued imposition of sanctions ultimately led to a larger-scale conflict. Additionally, the Gulf War influenced the broader Arab-Israeli conflict, with the regional alignment of states and the role of Arab cooperation against a common threat leading to new dynamics in U.S.-Middle East relations.